Our Living Soil

Our Living Soil
by Pat Vance

The United Nations declared 2015 the International Year of Soils in an effort to draw attention to the extremely important role soil plays in the health and welfare of humans around the world.

Most of us are aware that the soil in our gardens is teeming with living creatures, some visible to the eye, like our old friend the earthworm, and many, many more microscopic critters. This piece is about some of those tiny critters.

The densest population of microorganisms in the soil is near the roots of living plants, an area called the rhizosphere. Here, plants exude excess carbohydrates that soil microbes consume.

Here are some of the most active parts of this ecosystem:

Bacteria

 

Bacteria make up the largest group of denizens of the dirt. With as many as a billion bacteria in one teaspoon, there could very well be more bacteria than humans in the entire world in a mere half cup of fertile soil. Bacteria are simple single-celled organisms that are more primitive than animals and plants. Most of the bacteria in soil are decomposers that consume the carbohydrates and other organic materials in decaying plants. The by-products of this consumption include simple molecules that the living plants can then consume as nutrients.

In addition, there are bacteria that alter nitrogen, an essential elements for all living organisms. Many gardeners are familiar with rhizobia, bacteria that fix nitrogen in a partnership with legumes. Rhizobia form nodules on the roots of the legumes in a mutually beneficial collaboration. The legume exudes carbohydrates at the roots and rhizobia consume the carbohydrates. As a sort of payment, the rhizobia convert atmospheric nitrogen in the soil into ammonium, which the legume can utilize.  Additionally, if the roots are left in the ground, the next generation of plants to occupy the site will benefit from the excess ammonium that remains.

In turn, bacteria themselves are food sources for other organisms in the soil. Protozoa, for example, consume bacteria but need much less nitrogen. This results in more nitrogen available for plants in the immediate area.

Bacteria also contribute to soil structure by producing gummy substances that help hold soil particles together and help retain moisture.

Actinomycetes

Dig up a shovelful of fertile garden soil and in breathe in. That characteristic smell is produced by actinomycetes, a special group of bacteria that grow filaments much like fungi. Actinomycetes make up the second largest group of organisms in soil. They are found in soils on the alkaline, or higher, side of the pH scale and they break down more complex, harder to digest materials like lignin and cellulose. Actinomycetes produce several dark colored pigments, which add to the brown color of fertile soil And they produce many substances that are toxic to pathogenic microbes. The antibiotic streptomycin is a product of one group of actinomycetes.

Fungi

 

Fungi are found in acidic, or lower pH, soil and, like actinomycetes, they break down more complex materials like lignin and cellulose. Fungi are sometimes single-celled organisms, but they can also be enormous and complex. Mushrooms are the so-called fruiting bodies of fungi. The visible mushroom is only a small part of a very large fungus that can continue underground for great lengths. Some people consider a honey fungus in Oregon to be the world’s largest organism, extending over two miles underground.

Mycorrhizae are a special group of fungi that form associations with the roots of plants. Like rhizobia, the metabolic activity of these fungi provides nutrients for plants. In some cases, the plants will not grow properly without the presence of the correct mycorrhizae.

Filaments produced by fungi as well as actinomycetes provide structural support for soil.

Other Microbes in Soil

 

There are other groups of microbes present in the soil in smaller numbers.

Nematodes are microscopic worms that may feed on living plants, bacteria, fungi or other nematodes. Some are pathogenic, but others simply contribute to the release of nutrients in much the same way as bacteria and fungi.

We discussed protozoa, however, the amount of protozoa present in most typical garden soil is quite low.

There are undoubtedly a number of viruses in the soil. Viruses are not always classified as living things because they must be inside another living cell to reproduce. Despite this limitation viruses can lie dormant in soil for a long time, in some case many years, waiting for the opportunity to infect a living cell. Soil virology is a largely unexplored arena. Perhaps we will learn more in future years.

How much microbiology is going on in your garden soil?

 

There are many factors that influence the growth of microbes including moisture content, organic matter, and acidity or alkalinity. Also, the population of macrofauna (worms, insects, and other larger groups) will make a difference. Higher organic content in general usually means higher microbial activity.

To keep them happy, most beneficial microbes need air, so keeping soil from becoming compacted, and keeping soil moist but not waterlogged is vital. Unless you are courting some special mycorrhizal relationships, soil that is close to neutral pH (around 7.0) will also promote microbial health.

Are they all beneficial?

 

Not all dirt denizens are welcome in the garden. Some cause diseases in plants. For example, Crown gall is caused by bacteria. And a few, such as Clostridiun botulinum, can cause disease in humans. And we mentioned nematode pathogens. But that’s a topic for another time.

Sources

I consulted several reports, but most of the information in this piece comes from the USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service. Take a look at their newsletter PDF “Soil Microorganisms and their Functions” online.

Graphics used with kind permission from “Life from Soil: Soil Microorganisms-a picture story”

By Thomas Fester from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research. You can find a Power Point presentation here: http://www.ufz.de/index.php?en=20665

Preserving the Taste of Fresh Summer Berries

Preserving the Taste of Fresh Summer Berries
Patricia Vance

Ah, the jewels of summer! In my yard, the strawberries come first, followed by blueberries and blackberries. Then Autumn-bearing raspberries take me all the way through September. I can't resist popping at least a few into my mouths as I harvest, but there are still bowls of them to bring inside. Those of you who have devoted a corner of the yard to berries know how prolific they can be. As impossible as it seems, there are always more than I can eat fresh. What to do with the rest?

I have given them to friends, and put them in pies, and of course there are many ways to "put them by" in jams and jellies. My favorite preservation method is to make instant, no-cook refrigerator/freezer jams. Using so-called instant pectin, fresh berries and other fruit can be made into jams that last up to two weeks in the refrigerator or up to a year in the freezer.  

The process is simple and involves little in the way of equipment: Mash the berries. Mix the mash with instant pectin and sugar. Stir for 3 minutes. Ladle into clean screw-cap jars. Allow to set for 30 minutes. Freeze or refrigerate, and enjoy!

Pectin is a natural carbohydrate that comes from the cell walls of plants. Citrus fruits and apples are the most common sources for commercial pectin preparations. To make refrigerator/freezer jams, be sure to use the correct pectin. Some require cooking so read the label carefully to be sure it is specifically for non-cook freezer jams. My neighbor introduced me to Ball Realfruit Instant Pectin, but there are other brands on the market, including Mrs Wages Fruit Pectin for Freezer Jam, and Pomona's Universal Pectin. Each of these comes with detailed instructions and suggested recipes on the label.

Freezing does not destroy the microbes that cause spoilage, but growth is stopped as long as the jars are frozen. This eliminates the need for sterilized jars and vacuum-sealed lids.  Keeping the thawed jars in the fridge will slow spoilage for up to two weeks.  Cover the jars with tight lids, such as screw caps, both in the freezer and in the refrigerator. Select fruit with no mold, discoloration or signs of spoilage for the best results, and process the fruit as soon after harvesting as possible. Once you have thawed the jams, do not put them back in the freezer. Use them before the two week time limit, and then discard any leftovers.

Because I am not relying on the process to destroy microbes, I can try out various recipes including additions of spices, or increase or decrease the sugar without worrying about safety. I have added nutmeg to blueberries, ginger to peaches, and cinnamon to raspberries with excellent results.

Ball recommends 2 tablespoons of instant pectin for 1 2/3 cup of mashed berries. I find this produces more of a compote than a spreadable jam. There are times when this is perfect, as a topping for ice cream or French toast, for example. But to achieve the firmness of conventional jam, I need to add 3 or 4 tablespoons of pectin. Adding additional sugar or a dash of lemon juice will also increase firmness. Under-ripe fruit has more pectin than ripe fruit so you can increase firmness by adding fruit that is not quite at peak ripeness. And smaller jars (pint or half-pint) will set better than larger jars.

Fruits high in pectin include tart apples, concord grapes, citrus fruit, cranberries, quince, gooseberries, and loganberries. Lower pectin concentration is found in blueberries, cherries, peaches, pineapple, rhubarb, strawberries, raspberries, and figs.

It's a great way to get the most out of summer. I can make a jar or two at a time as fruit comes along. I don't need to heat up the house or crank up the air conditioning on a hot day. And I'm back out in the garden in a jiffy. Then in the middle of a dreary winter day, I can thaw the taste of summer and start making plans for next year's bounty.

--I have included information from the Oregon, Montana, and Illinois Extension Services, and from Ball's Fresh Preserving web site to prepare this piece.

Sorrel… an old herb being found again

Michele K Koskinen

Everyear my Herb Garden becomes an experiment in taste. An avid and experimental cook I scavage through cookbooks, look online, and watch a few cooking shows on TV to find new recipes to try with new ingredients. This has made my world of herbs expand from the usual Italian Basil, Parsley, Italian Oregano, and Thyme to experiment with out of the box unknown everyday herbs. Today my container deck garden contains 4 types of Basil, 2 types of Parsley, 3 types of Oregano, 2 kinds of Thyme, 3 different Mints, 2 Sages, 2 Rosemary, and a few more in my regular garden. This year I have found three new herbs to try: Sorrel and Summer and Winter Savory.They have been planted in my small garden as well as containers and are doing well in both. If you have the ground space I would recommend planting it into the garden as it gets fairly large. My garden is intwined with flowers as well as perennial herbs. The annuals have their own little bed or are in containers.

Sorrel is a perennial herb in zone 3 to 7 that is ornamental as well as edible. The red veined sorrel with striking green and maroon pointed leaves gives planters a texture and color that puts a little interest into the design.It is also a flowering herb with a spike of a flowere

Spring is the best season for tender and less pronounced taste for sorrel.There are several types of Sorrel each with different characteristics, the French Sorrel is milder, the broad leaf Sorrel and the ed veined Sorrel similar in taste. I am growing the red veined Sorrel which is quite tart and bitter. I have, however used some of the smaller older leaves this summer in a fish sauce and it gave just the right amount of lemon bitterness to the oiley fish. Sorrel is high in Vitamin C and C but can be toxic if cooked in the wrong material. Stainless steel is the material of choice for cooking Sorrel as it is high in oxalic acid. As always with trying new foods/herbs do your basic research to make sure of the proper cooking preparations. 

The spring leaves can be used with tender lettuce in a salad or a sauce for fish. Discovering the uses for sorrel are a continuing adventure. I have found recipes in older cookbooks, if anyone collects them, and online. If you are interested in this herb/ vegetable there are many resources online. I have listed a few below for your beginning search. The French Sorrel will be my herb of choice next year as I have found several recipes for this milder cultivar.   Enjoy






Epicurious.com/what-is-sorrel-recipes-article
Cooking.nytimes.com/sorrel-sauce-chicken-fish-lamb-or-veal
Culinate.com/books/cream_of_lentil-sorrel_soup
Culinate.com/sorrel and salmon soup
Honest-food.net/french-sorrel-soup/


Nextime--- Summer and Winter Savory another old herb gaining favor.

























Article in Edible Manhatten

Basil Downy Mildew

Michele K Koskinen



Has your basil crop had serious growing issues? Yellow leaves, brown specks, curling and dry. At first I thought it was lack of water, then too much water, then my short away time with hot hot weather. But no, I started trying to find an answer and just received my weekly email from a blogger I follow. Subject, Downy Mildew on Basil. My basil is grown in containers on my deck and I have not seen this before this year. Apparently it was spotted in 2009 and has been tracked since then.

Scientist are trying to get answers on how wide spread the problem is and possible solutions for the commercial as well as residential grower. The two links below will give you information with photos and a chance to enter information on your own Basil downy mildew problem for Cornell University to study. Within the links you will find additional links to get more information.


Cornell info on downy mildew with great photos

Calling-all-gardeners-report-basil-downy-mildew-occurrences

Adventures in the Edible Landscape Garden

Hard Work in the Early Spring Yields Dividends

This season's garden is off to a fabulous start. Work began in March when the outdoor temperatures still required winter hats and gloves. Committee members met at the garden in Fairmount Park on a sunny Saturday afternoon. The beds were raked, winter debris was removed and the soil was turned. Progress was measured by the large number of  filled trash bags lining the walkway next to the garden. By mid-April, the various plant supports were installed and necessary repairs made to the permanent structures. We were ready to plant!

Early plantings with row covers

Master Gardener, Eldredge Ragsdale at work

Cool weather crops including a half dozen types of lettuce, arugula, radishes and Chinese mustard greens planted a month ago are now ready to harvest. The kale and kohlrabi are not far behind. Summer harvest vegetables went in a week ago including peppers, tomatoes, bush and pole beans plus cucumbers and onions. The garlic planted last October is standing tall and promises to yield a healthy crop. The 'Himrod' grapes that were ruthlessly cut back in March are growing rapidly. The first few tiny grapes were spotted on the vines today.

Ever eager to expand our growing capabilities, the Committee volunteers cleared the old compost area that had become a dumping spot for debris and created a new planting bed. Fruit cages have been installed and blueberries and gooseberries have been planted. The extra space next to the cages has become an onion patch where 'Walla Walla' and 'Red Zeppelin' onions are now planted.

We encourage all of our Master Gardeners to visit the garden throughout the growing season. In case you are not certain where to find us, the garden is located on the back side of the Horticultural Center greenhouses in Fairmount Park.